Low energy extensions

Energy losses of slow negative particles

At low energies, e.g. below a few MeV for protons/antiprotons, the Bethe-Bloch formula is no longer accurate in describing the energy loss of charged hadrons and higher \(Z\) terms should be taken in account. Odd terms in \(Z\) lead to a significant difference between energy loss of positively and negatively charged particles. The energy loss of negative hadrons is scaled from that of antiprotons. The antiproton energy loss is calculated according to the quantum harmonic oscillator model is used, as described in [eal05] and references therein. The lower limit of applicability of the model is chosen for all materials at 10 keV. Below this value stopping power is set to constant equal to the \(dE/dx\) at 10 keV.

Energy losses of hadrons in compounds

To obtain energy losses in a mixture or compound, the absorber can be thought of as made up of thin layers of pure elements with weights proportional to the electron density of the element in the absorber (Bragg’s rule):

(186)\[ \frac{dE}{dx}=\sum_i{\left (\frac{dE}{dx} \right )_i},\]

where the sum is taken over all elements of the absorber, \(i\) is the number of the element, \((dE/dx)_i\) is energy loss in the pure \(i\)-th element.

Bragg’s rule is very accurate for relativistic particles when the interaction of electrons with a nucleus is negligible. But at low energies the accuracy of Bragg’s rule is limited because the energy loss to the electrons in any material depends on the detailed orbital and excitation structure of the material. In the description of Geant4 materials there is a special attribute: the chemical formula. It is used in the following way:

  • if the data on the stopping power for a compound as a function of the proton kinetic energy is available (Table 26), then the direct parametrisation of the data for this material is performed;

  • if the data on the stopping power for a compound is available for only one incident energy (Table 27), then the computation is performed based on Bragg’s rule and the chemical factor for the compound is taken into account;

  • if there are no data for the compound, the computation is performed based on Bragg’s rule.

In the review [ZM88] the parametrisation stopping power data are presented as

(187)\[S_e(T_p)= S_{Bragg}(T_p)\left [1 + \frac{f(T_p)}{f(125~keV)} \left (\frac{S_{exp}(125~keV)}{S_{Bragg}(125~keV)}-1 \right ) \right ],\]

where \(S_{exp}(125~\mbox{keV})\) is the experimental value of the energy loss for the compound for 125 keV protons or the reduced experimental value for He ions, \(S_{Bragg}(T_p)\) is a value of energy loss calculated according to Bragg’s rule, and \(f(T_p)\) is a universal function, which describes the disappearance of deviations from Bragg’s rule for higher kinetic energies according to:

(188)\[f(T_p)=\frac{1}{1+\exp \left [1.48(\frac{\beta(T_p)} {\beta(25~keV)}-7.0) \right ]},\]

where \(\beta(T_p)\) is the relative velocity of the proton with kinetic energy \(T_p\).

Table 26 Stopping Power Compounds Paremeterized vs. Energy

Number

Chemical formula

1

AlO

2

C2O

3

CH4

4

(C2H4)N-Polyethylene

5

(C2H4)N-Polypropylene

6

C8H8)N

7

C3H8

8

SiO2

9

H2O

10

H2O-Gas

11

Graphite

Table 27 Stopping Power Compounds Data for Fixed Energy

Number

Chemical formula

Number

Chemical formula

1

H2O

28

C2H6

2

C2H4O

29

C2F6

3

C3H6O

30

C2H6O

4

C2H2

31

C3H6O

5

CH3OH

32

C4H10O

6

C2H5OH

33

C2H4

7

C3H7OH

34

C2H4O

8

C3H4

35

C2H4S

9

NH3

36

SH2

10

C14H10

37

CH4

11

C6H6

38

CCLF3

12

C4H10

39

CCl2F2

13

C4H6

40

CHCl2F

14

C4H8O

41

(CH3)2S

15

CCl4

42

N2O

16

CF4

43

C5H10O

17

C6H8

44

C8H6

18

C6H12

45

(CH2)N

19

C6H10O

46

(C3H6)N

20

C6H10

47

(C8H8)N

21

C8H16

48

C3H8 C_3H_8

22

C5H10

49

C3H6-Propylene

23

C5H8

50

C3H6O

24

C3H6-Cyclopropane

51

C3H6S

25

C2H4F2

52

C4H4S

26

C2H2F2

53

C7H8

27

C4H8O2

Fluctuations of energy losses of hadrons

The total continuous energy loss of charged particles is a stochastic quantity with a distribution described in terms of a straggling function. The straggling is partially taken into account by the simulation of energy loss by the production of \(\delta\)-electrons with energy \(T > T_c\). However, continuous energy loss also has fluctuations. Hence in the current Geant4 implementation two different models of fluctuations are applied depending on the value of the parameter \(\kappa\) which is the lower limit of the number of interactions of the particle in the step. The default value chosen is \(\kappa = 10\). To select a model for thick absorbers the following boundary conditions are used:

(189)\[\Delta E > T_c\kappa \;\; \mbox{or} \;\; T_c < I\kappa,\]

where \(\Delta E\) is the mean continuous energy loss in a track segment of length \(s\), \(T_c\) is the kinetic energy cut of \(\delta\)-electrons, and \(I\) is the average ionisation potential of the atom.

For long path lengths the straggling function approaches the Gaussian distribution with Bohr’s variance [eal93]:

(190)\[\Omega^2 = K N_{el}\frac{Z_h^2}{\beta^2} T_c s f \left(1 - \frac{\beta^2}{2} \right),\]

where \(f\) is a screening factor, which is equal to unity for fast particles, whereas for slow positively charged ions with \(\beta^2 < 3Z (v_0/c)^2\) \(f = a + b/Z^2_{eff}\), where parameters \(a\) and \(b\) are parametrised for all atoms [QY91, WKC77].

For short path lengths, when the condition (189) is not satisfied, the model described in Energy Loss Fluctuations is applied.

ICRU 73-based energy loss model

The ICRU 73 [eal05] report contains stopping power tables for ions with atomic numbers 3–18 and 26, covering a range of different elemental and compound target materials. The stopping powers derive from calculations with the PASS code [SS02], which implements the binary stopping theory described in [SS00, SS02]. Tables in ICRU 73 extend over an energy range up to 1 GeV/nucleon. All stopping powers were incorporated into Geant4 and are available through a parameterisation model (G4IonParametrisedLossModel). For a few materials revised stopping powers were included (water, water vapor, nylon type 6 and 6/6 from P. Sigmund et al. [PSP09] and copper from P. Sigmund [PSigmund09]), which replace the corresponding tables of the original ICRU 73 report.

To account for secondary electron production above \(T_{c}\), the continuous energy loss per unit path length is calculated according to

(191)\[\frac{dE}{dx}\bigg|_{T<T_C} = \bigg(\frac{dE}{dx}\bigg)_{ICRU73} - \bigg(\frac{dE}{dx}\bigg)_{\delta}\]

where \((dE/dx)_{ICRU73}\) refers to stopping powers obtained by interpolating ICRU 73 tables and \((dE/dx)_{\delta}\) is the mean energy transferred to \(\delta\)-electrons per path length given by

(192)\[\bigg(\frac{dE}{dx}\bigg)_{\delta} = \sum_{i} n_{at,i} \int_{T_c}^{T_{max}} \frac{d\sigma_i(T)}{dT} T dT\]

where the index \(i\) runs over all elements composing the material, \(n_{at,i}\) is the number of atoms of the element \(i\) per volume, \(T_{max}\) is the maximum energy transferable to an electron according to formula and \(d\sigma_i/dT\) specifies the differential cross section per atom for producing an \(\delta\)-electron.

For compound targets not considered in the ICRU 73 report, the first term on the right hand side in Eq.(191) is computed by applying Bragg’s additivity rule [eal93] if tables for all elemental components are available in ICRU 73.

Bibliography

eal93(1,2)

M.J. Berger et al. Report 49. Journal of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, os25(2):NP–NP, may 1993. ICRU Report 49. URL: https://doi.org/10.1093/jicru/os25.2.Report49, doi:10.1093/jicru/os25.2.report49.

eal05(1,2)

P. Sigmund et al. Stopping of ions heavier than helium. Journal of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, jun 2005. ICRU Report 73. URL: https://doi.org/10.1093/jicru/ndi001, doi:10.1093/jicru/ndi001.

PSP09

A. Schinner P. Sigmund and H. Paul. Stopping of ions heavier than helium. Technical Report Errata and Addenda for ICRU Report 73, 2009.

PSigmund09

P.Sigmund. Personal communication. ():, 2009.

QY91

Z. Wang Q. Yang, D.J. O\'Connor. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B, 61():149, 1991.

SS00

P. Sigmund and A. Schinner. Eur. Phys. J. D, 12():425, 2000.

SS02(1,2)

P. Sigmund and A. Schinner. Nucl. Instr. Meth. B, 195():64, 2002.

WKC77

in: W.K. Chu. Ion Beam Handbook for Material Analysis, edt. J.W. Mayer and E. Rimini. Academic Press, NY, edition, 1977.

ZM88

J.F. Ziegler and J.M. Manoyan. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B, 35():215, 1988.